11/05/2026
#𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥𝐬𝐌𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐲 | 𝐋𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐫𝐬 𝐔𝐩𝐨𝐧 𝐋𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐫𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐬: 𝐑𝐮𝐛𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐓𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐬
No matter the amount of power capable of being generated by a motor, whether combustion or electric, the amount of usable power will always be limited by the amount of friction between a vehicle’s tire and the ground. Similarly, a vehicle's ability to reduce speed and stop is limited by friction between the tire and the ground, regardless of how powerful its brakes are. All in all, the vehicle’s ability to change its speed and direction depends on the friction between the tire treads and the road surface (Heinrich & Klüppel, 2008).
𝐖𝐇𝐀𝐓 𝐃𝐎 𝐓𝐇𝐄𝐘 𝐄𝐍𝐃𝐔𝐑𝐄?
Whether used in passenger cars, heavy trucks, aircraft, or industrial machines, their tires must be able to endure repeated cycles of loading and unloading, frictional forces from acceleration and braking, and deformation as they roll, all of which contribute to wear and material fatigue over time; additionally, tires must perform reliably while also exposed to varying environmental conditions, such as with temperature, moisture, debris, and ultraviolet radiation (Thombare, 2013).
𝐖𝐇𝐀𝐓 𝐌𝐀𝐊𝐄𝐒 𝐔𝐏 𝐀 𝐓𝐈𝐑𝐄?
Modern tires are built as layered composites, where each component has a specific structural or functional role. Rather than being made of a single material, each part combines rubber compounds with reinforcements and additives to achieve a desired property, based on the conditions that a specific part of the tire will experience; this means that not all rubber in the tire is of the same compound, but is actually many different formulations depending on what is expected from what part (Rodgers & Waddell, 2005). With that in mind, the following are the primary components of modern tires:
𝐓𝐑𝐄𝐀𝐃 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐈𝐃𝐄𝐖𝐀𝐋𝐋
The tread is the outermost layer of a tire, the part that directly contacts the road. This layer is essentially a thick strip of the tire compound itself, a blend of high elastic modulus natural rubber and synthetic rubbers such as styrene-butadiene rubber and butadiene rubber to ensure enough stiffness to support the vehicle’s weight; fillers like carbon black or silica to improve grip, wear resistance, and heat dissipation; while also incorporating additives that enhance traction under wet or dry conditions (Ramin Zafarmehrabian et al., 2012).
The sidewall surrounds the inner ply layer and connects the tread to the bead. As the layer that protects the ply below, the sidewall must resist cracking from repeated flexing and constant UV exposure while maintaining enough elasticity to cushion the ride. As such, this component is made from flexible rubber compounds, distinct from the compound used in the thread, and is designed to withstand repeated bending, impacts, and environmental exposure (Akaporn Limtrakul et al., 2021).
𝐒𝐓𝐄𝐄𝐋 𝐁𝐄𝐋𝐓𝐒, 𝐏𝐋𝐘, 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐓𝐇𝐄 𝐈𝐍𝐍𝐄𝐑 𝐋𝐈𝐍𝐄𝐑
Beneath the tread are the steel belts, which are layers of high-strength steel cords embedded in rubber. These belts are the main reinforcement that provides stiffness, helps the tire maintain its shape, and improves puncture resistance. They also distribute loads more evenly across the contact patch, enhancing handling and tread life (Rodgers & Waddell, 2005).
Below the belt lies the ply, which forms the tire's main structural body. It is made of textile cords, commonly polyester, nylon, or rayon, which itself is coated in rubber. While the rubber compound alone provides the tire with flexibility and some rigidity, the cords in this layer help ensure sufficient stiffness and durability to support the vehicle’s weight and absorb road shocks (Rodgers & Waddell, 2005).
Inside the tire is the inner liner, a layer of airtight rubber made from Halobutyl or Bromobutyl rubber, an elastomer with low permeability that prevents air from leaking out of tubeless tires. This replaces the need for an inner tube and helps maintain consistent inflation pressure (Rodgers, 2011).
𝐓𝐈𝐑𝐄 𝐁𝐄𝐀𝐃𝐒 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐀𝐃𝐃𝐈𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍𝐀𝐋 𝐑𝐄𝐈𝐍𝐅𝐎𝐑𝐂𝐄𝐌𝐄𝐍𝐓𝐒
At the inner edges of the tire are the beads, which anchor the tire securely to the wheel rim. Beads are composed of tightly wound steel wires coated in rubber, providing high tensile strength to keep the tire firmly seated under pressure (Rodgers & Waddell, 2005).
In addition to the parts already mentioned above, belt plies or cap plies, often made from nylon, are placed over the steel belts to improve high-speed performance and durability by acting as an additional layer to absorb internal stresses during loading to supplement the steel belts. In addition, apex fillers and chafer strips reinforce the bead area and protect against wear from rim contact (Rodgers & Waddell, 2005).
𝐖𝐇𝐀𝐓 𝐀𝐁𝐎𝐔𝐓 𝐕𝐔𝐋𝐂𝐀𝐍𝐈𝐙𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍?
After each layer of the tire is assembled, the now “green tire” undergoes vulcanization. The tire is placed in a mold and subjected to high temperatures of around 150–180°C and high pressure. During this process, sulfur forms cross-links between rubber polymer chains, transforming the soft, pliable structure into a stronger yet still elastic material. The mold also imprints the tread pattern and sidewall markings. Curing conditions directly affect performance, as under-curing can lead to weak, unstable rubber; while over-curing can make the tire brittle and prone to cracking (R. Rajesh Babu et al., 2013).
𝐑𝐄𝐅𝐄𝐑𝐄𝐍𝐂𝐄𝐒
Heinrich, G., & Klüppel, M. (2008). Rubber friction, tread deformation and tire traction. Wear, 265(7-8), 1052–1060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2008.02.016
Thombare, D. (2013). Parametric Study and Experimental Evaluation of Vehicle Tyre Performance [Review of Parametric Study and Experimental Evaluation of Vehicle Tyre Performance]. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics Research [ISSN: 2278-0149], 2(2). academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/4267773/Parametric_Study_and_Experimental_Evaluation_of_Vehicle_Tyre_Performance
Rodgers, B., & Waddell, W. (2005). Tire Engineering. Elsevier EBooks, 619–II. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012464786-2/50017-1
Ramin Zafarmehrabian, Saeed Taghvaei Gangali, Mir, & Mehran Davallu. (2012). The Effects of Silica/Carbon Black Ratio on the Dynamic Properties of the Tread compounds in Truck Tires. E-Journal of Chemistry, 9(3), 1102–1112. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/571957
Akaporn Limtrakul, Pongdhorn Sae‐Oui, Manuchet Nillawong, & Chakrit Sirisinha. (2021). Influence of Carbon Black/Silica Hybrid Ratio on Properties of Passenger Car Tire Sidewall. Periodica Polytechnica Chemical Engineering, 66(1), 147–156. https://doi.org/10.3311/ppch.18086
Rodgers, B. and Halasa, A. (2011). Compounding and Processing of Rubber/Rubber Blends. In Encyclopedia of Polymer Blends, A.I. Isayev (Ed.). https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527805242.ch4
R. Rajesh Babu, Shibulal, G. S., Chandra, A. K., & Kinsuk Naskar. (2013). Compounding and Vulcanization. Advanced Structured Materials, 83–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-20925-3_4
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝑴𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒚𝒐𝒖 𝒃𝒚 𝑴𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑺-𝑴𝑼. 𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥𝐬 𝐌𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐲 (𝐌𝐌) 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒌𝒍𝒚 𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒆-𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍-𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒍𝒅 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝑺𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈—𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒐 𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒑 𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒍𝒚 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒔.
Content by: Jzan Franzees Amansec
Design by: Andres Aromin, Valerie Laroco
