City Building Construction, Aurangabad, Bihar.

03/09/2022

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30/08/2022

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30/08/2022

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22/12/2019

and of a

First of all, you should determine the size of the opening in the ceiling (depends on the length of the tread) and the distance between floors (determines the number of steps). It is also necessary to consider the angle of twist of the spiral staircase. With the passage of the full range of the spiral staircase you end motion at the same point across, where it started. If you build a ladder in the middle of the room, the entrance to the stairs and exit from it can be arranged in any convenient location. However, if you install a ladder in a corner or against a wall, pay attention to the direction of rotation and determine the point of entry and exit from the stairs, it is likely that you will have to give up the 360​​° rotation of the stairs and we take the other corner. The loft-style homes have to take into account the height of the overlap to avoid hitting his head on the design of the attic as when driving, and when you exit the stairs.

Before the construction of the stairs need to draft, in determining the length of the tread and the number of stages. Suppose that we design a spiral staircase to the angle of rotation of 360°, a diameter of 2 and 3 m high.

Getting to the design of the stairs. The circumference of the ladder (Fig. 13, 14) rotation of 360° is calculated using the formula: L = 2πR. The circumference along the trajectory calculated by the formula L = 2πr, where r = 2R / 3, since the middle line motion along the helical staircase is located 2/3 of the radius of the ladder. Therefore, the circumference along the midline of the motion amount L = 4πR / 3 = 4×3,14×1000/3 = 4187 mm (4.19 m).

With these calculations we have sweep the stairs, corresponds to the usual odnomarshevoy stairs. At the height of floors (from floor to floor) 3 m height of the steps to take rational steps of 150 or 200 mm, while the number of lifts will be 20 or 15. Assume that stopped on a variant of stairs with 15 lifts. For 15 lifts require 14 steps, the last step 15 also serves as a landing. The width of the last step we can take to the width of the two series of stages or three or four. It is important to understand that entering the first stage, the overall height is reduced by the height of the steps, and ladders with 360 ° rotation of the head space. With 15 climbs the ladder height of each step is obtained by 200 mm. So, at a height of 3 m floor we can prevent the installation of site-wide 4-stage. Climbing up to the fourth step, we lose 800 mm height, and above his head is still more than 2 m.

We calculate the width of the tread of our ladder midline movement. It should be subject to the following formulas: 2a + b = 600 ... 640 mm, or a + b = 450 ± 20 mm. Substituting the step height in the formulas we obtain that the width of the tread from the first formula should be between 200-240 mm, 230-270 mm second. And what we have in reality? Divide the length of 4187 mm on the scanner 14 steps, we get 299 mm. It is the size of a standard ladder sold on the construction market, we will change it somewhat, as a step to lifting height does not pass by the formulas ergonomics - it is too broad. It turns out the increased width of the step (2×200+ 299 = 699 instead of 620 mm). It is advisable to increase the number rises to 17 (16 steps plus platform). Then the width of the tread will be: 4187/16 = 262 mm and the height rises 3000/17 = 177 mm. Moreover, 16 lifts will be at 177 mm, and the very first climb to 9 mm below - 168 mm (168+16×177 = 3000 mm). These dimensions stairs meet the requirements of ergonomics and allow us to make the width of the upper platform of five steps, as climbing the stairs, we can afford to lose in height up to one meter, and it is at least 5 lifts.

It should be added that counting the number of steps carried out by the usual method of selection. You just have to share the floor height to a different number of ascents and see what gets the size of the height and width of steps and how they comply with regulatory formulas, that is, the width of the pitch man. When the height of the ladder is not evenly divisible by the number climbs to within a millimeter, you should increase or decrease the height of the first step. The difference in size is less than 10 mm, that is virtually imperceptible. All the other steps of the march should be exactly the same in both the width and height. A small deviation in height between the first step and the rest may be because we can not radically change the height of the floor: it is what it is. We can tweak it a little thickness flooring and adjust the height so that it evenly divisible by the height of the boom, and if this is not possible, change the height of the first step. Calculating the width of tread more loyal. We can always slightly increase or decrease the size of the ladder in terms of making all the steps of the same width, so it is a question about the balance of no more than 10 mm. The spiral staircases even easier, all the steps are done openly and winder (without riser), ie steps "run up" to each other. Slight broadening treads will not affect the lower rung a little deeper "zabezhit" at the top.

The width of the tread along the trajectory defined, now we need to calculate the width of a step in the narrow part. Steps are usually strung on a steel pipe with a diameter of 50 mm, to increase the rigidity of the rack and fixing steps at a certain height between the rungs are inserted steel liner and machined on a lathe washers. Consequently, the overall diameter of the central support column will be increased. Furthermore, a narrow stage portion is drilled with a diameter of 50 mm, so that the step is not broken, it must extend by adding in all directions around the hole size, equal to one diameter (50 mm). Thus, it turns out that the width of the narrow part of the tread in the attachment to the casing will be 50 + 50 + 50 = 150 mm.

We expect the tread width in the widest part of the steps. The circumference will be: L = 2πR = 2×3.14×1000 = 6280 mm. Number of steps - 16 (17 lifts). Hence, the tread width in the wide portion equals steps 6280/16 = 393 mm. Thus, the estimated size of the tread stages (Fig. 60) comprise a narrow portion 150 at the line of motion (at a distance of two thirds of the radius) - 262, in general parts - 393 mm. The stage can be made to these dimensions, but in reality the form of steps simplify connecting line marking the wide and narrow parts of the tread. The size of the width of the tread on the line of motion is increased. However, this alleged increase step is really getting wider, but when the ladder is fully assembled, the tread width of the line will be equal to the calculated movement. Steps just "zabegut" to each other.

The calculation of the size of the spiral staircase tread

Fig. 60. The calculation of the size of the spiral staircase tread (in mm.)

Do not forget that we have obtained estimates are valid only for the size of the radius of the staircase is 1 m. When you change the range or change the position of the line of motion, for example, by taking it equal to the R / 2, the size of the tread will be different. Why you can change the position of the line of traffic? Because people do not unknowingly walk erect either drawn or imaginary line. The spiral staircase where the wedge-shaped stage, the size of the tread is reduced from the outer boundary of the stairs to the center. As if we did not expect a line of movement, one leg still is on the widest part of the stage, the other on the narrow. Many manufacturers of spiral staircases have long ceased to reflect on this issue and make their ladders with rises of 200 mm (14 degrees, 15 lifts), and the width of the tread they do so, how it turns out, depending on the diameter of the staircase. A man who uses the stairs, he will find where it is more convenient to go close to the edge or closer to the center.

All of the calculations were carried out along the circumference and arcs. Due to the complexity of the application of these values ​​for the navigation layout of stages used in the calculation of the best chord. Chord length is calculated by the formula c = 2Rsina / 2. Those who calculate the sine seem too difficult, you can refuse to consider such a calculation and chord equal to the corresponding lengths of the arcs, but note that in this stage will be wider than it is necessary, therefore, an overhang of one over the other will be more.

To determine the size of the upper stage - the landing need to understand how the ladder will be oriented in the room. Ladder round, it can be rotated as you like and provide a convenient approach to it, but you need to consider how to make a way out of it. Dimensions platform are calculated based on the layout of the second floor. Some solutions accommodate landings shown in Figure 61.

Options for the location of staircases spiral staircases

Fig. 61. Options for the location of staircases spiral staircases

Now we need to prepare for a ladder in the ceiling opening the top floor. The opening is designed in the manufacturing process drawings of the whole house, and left open during construction. If it is, for whatever reason it did not happen, the opening cut out in the finished ceiling. The shape of the opening may be square or circular. The main condition, the size of "the clear" retained or sawed opening should be larger than the diameter of the stairs at least 20 cm, that is 10 cm on each side.

We will look at the production of a circular aperture, the more complicated. The rectangular opening is similarly describes a method, but it does not require a frame formed sections.

Mark the planned opening on the lower surface of the floor (Fig. 62), adding all sides needed to finish thickness and move the markup with a plumb line on the ceiling. Install adjustable jack stands, as shown in the figure. In the center of the opening in the top, drill a hole through the ceiling from the bottom up. Go upstairs and get the drilled hole. Insert the pin into the hole and with the help of string and a pencil draw a circle, indicating the opening considering the thickness of the beams framing the doorway. Make the through-holes for the passage of a jigsaw blade and drank the floor of the contour of the opening. Knock sawn pieces of floorboards. Bearing joist is not touch, they drank, when it is ready to finish opening.

Marking stairwell

Fig. 62. Marking stairwell

For the device beam aperture having a circular shape, it is necessary to make bend lumber. The bend can be done in several ways, but the easiest way to bending, available at home, "holodnokleevoy." The large and flat table, upholstered roofing tin (tin trim table will not allow the bonding element to the manufactured surface of the table), installed steel or wooden swirling, forming the required diameter (Fig. 63). To the table away from the swirling slightly larger than the thickness of the element is bent, fixed wooden or steel supports. To ensure good crimp height and stops whirling selected more than is required for this item. On how quality will be made whirling, it determines the quality of the bent structure. Instead stops and wedges may be used a clamp.

Table for the manufacture of bent wood construction

Fig. 63. Table for the manufacture of bent wood construction

Bent beam is made of veneer, so called thin sheet of wood. Depending on the method of manufacturing a distinguished peeled, crushed and sawn veneer. Rotary cut veneer thickness 0,25-1,66 mm is the most common. Quality peeled, crushed and sawn veneer about the same.

The whole process of gluing can be compared with the manufacture of paper mache paper. The conductor sequentially inserted previously missed glue strips of wood veneer and crimped wedges. The first and last band veneer should be full length and bent into a ring, the middle can be filled with shorter pieces. All veneer strips made of 5-10 mm height greater than that required for subsequent grinding and ostrozheks obtained product. For better crimp allowed to use screws, countersunk screwed that will forever remain in the ravine. The process of manufacturing a bent beam, depending on its thickness may be performed in one or several stages, i.e. in the conductor can charge the entire package or only a portion of the veneer, for instance, half the thickness, and after drying, the next half. In order to achieve a higher quality of work can be placed in the conductor on one layer, compressing, drying and paste the next layer. The speed of the fall markedly, but improve the quality of crimping, therefore, the entire beam. But at the same time we should not forget the main rule: all bonding layers should be about the same humidity.

After drying and gluing curved beams framing the opening set in the ceiling. For this cut out in the floor girders and fixed frame (Fig. 64). Bent structure attached to the existing joists angled plates or metal toothed plates (MW). For the finishing of the opening you need to make two rounded plinth and install them on the screws above and below the opening. Skirting boards are manufactured in the same jig with the only difference is that they are made slightly wider beam and considerably lower

12/12/2019

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08/12/2019

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07/12/2019

Types of RCC Foundation & Footing With Details


Foundation is one of the most important parts of the structure. Foundation is defined as that part of the structure that transfers the load from the structure as well as its own weight over a large area of soil in such a way that the load does not exceed the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil and the settlement of the total structure remains within a tolerable limit. Foundation is the part of a structure on which the building stands. The solid ground on which the foundation rests is called the foundation bed.

Why a Foundation is Provided
Foundation should fulfill the following objectives:

Distribute the weight of the structure over a large area of soil.
Avoid unequal settlement.
Prevent the lateral movement of the structure.
Increase structural stability.
Why There are Different Types of Foundation
As we know that there are different types of soil and bearing capacity of the soil is different for each individual type of soil. So depending on the soil profile, size and load of the structure, engineers chose different types of foundation.

Types of Foundation

In general, all foundations are divided into two categories, such as SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS and DEEP FOUNDATIONS. The terms Shallow Foundation and Deep Foundation refer to the depth of the soil at which the foundation is placed. Generally, if the width of the foundation is greater than the depth of the foundation it is labeled as “Shallow Foundation” and if the width of the foundation is smaller than the depth of the foundation it is called as “Deep Foundation.” However, shallow and deep foundations can be further classified as shown in the following chart.



Foundation
System
Shallow
Foundation
Deep
Foundation
Isolated Spred
Footing
Wall
Footing
Combined
Footing
Cantilever
or strap
footing
Raft
or Mat
Foundation
Pile
Foundation
Pier
Foundation
Caisson
Foundation

Main aspects of different types of foundation along with their images are given below. As economic feasibility is one of the main factors in foundation type selection, it is also discussed briefly with each type of foundation. To know other factors which affect the selection of foundation read: Factors Considered for Selection of Foundation.

Shallow Foundations
Several types of shallow foundations are discussed below:

1. Isolated Spread Footing

This is the most common and simplest type of foundation as this is the most economical type of foundation. They are generally used for ordinary buildings (Generally up to five stories).

Isolated Footing
Figure: Isolated Footing
Isolated footing type foundation consists of footing at the base of the column. This type of foundations is independent footings. Usually, each column has its own footing. The footing directly transfers the loads form the column to the soil. The footings may be rectangular, square or circular in shape. The size of the footing can be roughly calculated by dividing the total load at the column base by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.

Isolated Spread Footing is economical when:

The load of the structure is relatively low.
Columns are not closely placed.
Bearing capacity of the soil is high at a shallow depth.

2. Wall Footing or Strip footing

This type of footing is used to distribute loads of structural load-bearing walls to the ground. Wall foundation runs along the direction of the wall. The width of the wall foundation is generally 2-3 times of the width of the wall.

Wall Footing
Figure: Wall Footing or Strip footing
The wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the length of the wall. Stone, brick, reinforced concrete etc. is used for the construction of wall foundations.

Wall footing is economical when:

Loads to be transmitted are of small magnitude.
The footing is placed on dense sand and gravels.

3. Combined Footing

The combined footing is very similar to the isolated footing. When the columns of the structure are closely placed, or the bearing capacity of the soil is low and their footing overlap each other, combined footing is provided.

The foundations which are made common to more than one column are called combined footings. They may be rectangular, tee-shaped or trapezoidal in shape. The main objective is the uniform distribution of loads under the entire area of footing. For this is necessary to coincide the center of gravity of the footing area with the center of gravity of the total loads.

Figure: Combined Footing
Combined foundations are economic when:

The columns are placed close to each other.
When the column is close to the property line and the isolated footing would cross the property line or become eccentric.
Dimensions of one side of the footing are restricted to some lower value.

4. Cantilever or Strap Footing

Strap footings are similar to combined footings and reasons for considering or choosing strap footing is similar to the combined footing.

In strap footing, the footings under the columns are built individually and connected by strap beam. Generally, when the edge of the footing cannot be extended beyond the property line the exterior footing is connected by strap beam with interior footing.

Cantilever Strap Footing
Figure: Cantilever or Strap Footing

5. Raft or Mat Foundation

Raft or Mat foundations are used where other shallow foundation or pile foundation is not suitable. It is also recommended in situations where the bearing capacity of the soil is poor, the load of the structure is to be distributed over a large area or structure is constantly subjected to shocks or jerks.

Raft foundation consists of a reinforced concrete slab or T-beam slab placed over the entire area of the structure. In this type of foundation, the entire basement floor slab acts as the foundation. The total load of the structure is spread evenly over the entire area of the structure. This is called Raft because in this case, the building seems like a vessel which floats on a sea of soil.

Raft Mat Foundation
Figure: Raft or Mat foundations
Raft foundations are economic when:

The soil is weak and the load has to be spread over a large area.
The structure includes a basement.
Columns are closely placed.
Other kinds of foundations are not feasible.
Differential settlement is to be prevented.

You can also read:

Raft Foundation - When to Use, Types, Construction
Advantages and Disadvantages of Raft Foundation


Deep Foundations

Several Types of Deep Foundations Are Discussed Below:

1. Pile Foundation

Pile foundation is a common type of deep foundation. They are used to reduce cost and when as per soil condition considerations, it is desirable to transmit loads to soil strata which are beyond the reach of shallow foundations.

Pile is a slender member with a small cross-sectional area compared to its length. It is used to transmit foundation loads to a deeper soil or rock strata when the bearing capacity of soil near the surface is relatively low. Pile transmits load either by skin friction or bearing. Piles are also used for resist structures against uplift and provide structures stability against lateral and overturning forces.


Pile foundations are economic using pile foundation when

Soil with great bearing capacity is at a greater depth.
When there are chances of construction of irrigation canals in the nearby area.
When it is very expensive to provide raft or grillage foundations.
When the foundation is subjected to a heavy concentrated load.
In marshy places.
When the topsoil layer is compressible in nature. • In case of bridges when the scouring is more in the river bed.
Pile foundations can again be classified based on its material and its mechanism of load transfer or function. Several types of pile foundations are shown in the following chart.

Pile Foundation Articles

What is Pile Foundation? Types of Pile Foundation
Uses of Pile Foundation
Factors Affecting Selection of Pile Foundation Type
Causes of Pile Foundation Failure
Difference Between Shallow and Deep Foundation
What is Friction Pile? Capacity Calculation & Details
Differences Between Pile and Pier Foundation
Difference Between Piles, Piers, and Caissons


3. Pier Foundation

Pier is an underground structure that transmits heavier load which cannot be transmitted by shallow foundations. It is usually shallower than pile foundations.

Pier Foundation
Figure: Pier Foundation
Pier foundation is a cylindrical structural member which transfer heavy load from superstructure to the soil by end bearing. Unlike pile, it can only transfer load by bearing and by not skin friction.

Pier Foundation is economic when:

Sound rock strata lie under a decomposed rock layer at the top.
The topsoil is stiff clay which resists driving the bearing pile.
When a heavy load is to be transferred to the soil.

4. Caisson Foundation

Caisson foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a bridge pier, construction of dam etc. It is generally used in structures which requires foundation beneath a river or similar water bodies. Reason for choosing caisson foundation is that it can be floated to the desired location and then sunk into place.

Caisson Foundation
Figure: Caisson Foundation
Caisson foundation is a ready-made hollow cylinder depressed into the soil up to the desired level and then filled with concrete which ultimately converts to a foundation. It is mostly used as bridge piers. Caissons are sensitive to construction procedures and lack construction expertise.

There are several types of caisson foundation such as:

Box Caissons
Floating Caissons
Pneumatic Caissons
Open Caissons
Sheeted Caissons
Excavated Caissons
Caisson foundations are economic when:

Pile cap requirement is to be minimized
Noise and vibration needed to be reduced
Foundation has to be placed beneath water bodies.
Highly lateral and axial loading capacity is required.

Caisson Foundation Articles

What is Caisson Foundation – Mechanism, Types, Construction
Uses of Caisson Foundation
Advantages & Disadvantages of Caisson Foundation
Difference Between Shallow and Deep Foundation


To conclude, the foundation is a structural supporting member which transfer the total load form slab, beam, column, wall etc. The main objective of the foundation is to provide stability to the total structure and safely transfer the total load from the structure to the soil at an optimum cost.

07/12/2019

Types of Shallow Foundations

1. Individual Footing or Isolated Footing

Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation used for building construction. This foundation is constructed for single column and also called as pad foundation.

The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads from structure is carried by the columns. Size is calculated based on the load on the column and safe bearing capacity of soil.

Rectangular isolated footing is selected when the foundation experiences moments due to eccentricity of loads or due to horizontal forces.


For example, Consider a column with vertical load of 200 kN and safe bearing capacity of 100 kN/m2 then the area of the footing required will be 200/100 = 2m2. So, for a square footing, length and width of footing will be 1.414 m x 1.414 m.

2. Combined Footing

Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close enough and their isolated footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated footings, but their structural design differs.

The shape of this footing is rectangle and is used when loads from structure is carried by the columns.

3. Spread footings or Strip footings and Wall footings

Spread footings are those whose base is more wider than a typical load bearing wall foundations. The wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the building structure over more area and provides better stability.

Types of Foundation - Spread Footing

Fig: Spread Footing

Spread footings and wall footings are used for individual columns, walls and bridge piers where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the ground surface. Soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the structure over the base area of the structure.

These should not be used on soils where there is any possibility of ground flow of water above bearing layer of soil which may result in scour or liquefaction.

4. Raft or Mat Foundations

Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the entire area of the building to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls.

Types of Foundation - Mat Foundation

Fig: Mat Foundation

The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads from structure on columns and walls are very high. This is used to prevent differential settlement of individual footings, thus designed as a single mat (or combined footing) of all the load bearing elements of the structure.

It is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for suitability of spread footings and wall footings. Raft foundation is economical when one-half area of the structure is covered with individual footings and wall footings are provided.

These foundations should not be used where the groundwater table is above the bearing surface of the soil. Use of foundation in such conditions may lead to scour and liquefaction.

Types of Deep Foundation

5. Pile Foundations

Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from the structure to a hard rock strata much deep below the ground level.

Pile Foundation

Fig: Pile Foundation

Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hard soil strata which is much below ground level where shallow foundations such as spread footings and mat footings cannot be used. This is also used to prevent uplift of structure due to lateral loads such as earthquake and wind forces.

Read More on Deep Foundations

Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil conditions near the ground surface is not suitable for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata may be 5m to 50m (15 feet to 150 feet) deep from the ground surface.

Pile foundation resists the loads from structure by skin friction and by end bearing. Use of pile foundations also prevents differential settlement of foundations.

Read More on Pile Foundation

6. Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation

Drilled shafts, also called as caissons, is a type of deep foundation and has action similar to pile foundations discussed above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It resists loads from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance and / or combination of both of these. The construction of drilled shafts or caissons are done using an auger.

Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation

Fig: Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation (Source: Hayward Baker)

Drilled shafts can transfer column loads larger than pile foundations. It is used where depth of hard strata below ground level is location within 10m to 100m (25 feet to 300 feet).

Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not suitable when deep deposits of soft clays and loose, water-bearing granular soils exists. It is also not suitable for soils where caving formations are difficult to stabilize, soils made up of boulders, artesian aquifer exists.

07/12/2019

refers to the mechanical process by which soil changes volume gradually in response to a change in pressure. This happens because soil is a two-phase material, comprising soil grains and pore fluid, usually groundwater. When soil saturated with water is subject to an increase in pressure, the high volumetric stiffness of water compared to the soil matrix means that the water initially absorbs all the change in pressure without changing volume, creating excess pore water pressure. As water diffuses away from regions of high pressure due to seepage, the soil matrix gradually takes up the pressure change and shrinks in volume. The theoretical framework of consolidation is therefore closely related to the diffusion equation, the concept of effective stress, and hydraulic conductivity.

In the narrow sense, "consolidation" refers strictly to this delayed volumetric response to pressure change due to gradual movement of water. Some publications also use "consolidation" in the broad sense, to refer to any process by which soil changes volume due to a change in applied pressure. This broader definition encompasses the overall concept of soil compaction, subsidence, and heave. Some types of soil, mainly those rich in organic matter, show significant creep, whereby the soil changes volume slowly at constant effective stress over a longer time-scale than consolidation due to the diffusion of water. To distinguish between the two mechanisms, "primary consolidation" refers to consolidation due to dissipation of excess water pressure, while "secondary consolidation" refers to the creep process.

The effects of consolidation are most conspicuous where a building sits over a layer of soil with low stiffness and low permeability, such as marine clay, leading to large settlement over many years. Types of construction project where consolidation often poses technical risk include land reclamation, the construction of embankments, and tunnel and basement excavation in clay.

Geotechnical engineers use oedometers to quantify the effects of consolidation. In an oedometer test, a series of known pressures are applied to a thin disc of soil sample, and the change of sample thickness with time is recorded. This allows the consolidation characteristics of the soil to be quantified in terms of the coefficient of consolidation (
C
v
C_{{v}}) and hydraulic conductivity (
K
K).